Coherence Principle of Multimedia Design
The coherence principle focuses on the use of multimedia, any audio or visual messages, presented during learning. Many presenters or instructional designers embellish their learning materials with additional elements, as per the arousal theory, to build in interest and entertainment. The thought being emotional arousal enhances engagement and motivation ( Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 156). However, empirical research (Mayer, 1999; Morena & Mayer, 2000; Clark & Mayer, 2008) consistently proves that adding extraneous material such as text, music, videos or graphics, depresses learning. The coherence principle states, “Avoid extraneous audio, graphics, or graphic treatments and words to minimize irrelevant load imposed on memory during learning.” (p. 456). Applying this principle requires remembering that “less is more” and always distill learning materials to the essence.
Mayer and Clark (2011) acknowledge that the coherence principle is constrained in some areas due to lack of research (p. 172-173). For example it is unknown how learner characteristics factor into the effectiveness of this principle. Research proves novices to a domain and low-ability learners can show significant learning gains when the coherence principle is applied to learning materials. (p. 164). However, research suggest the expertise reversal effect may mean learners with prior knowledge in a domain, may not increase learning when the principle is applied (Mayer, 1999, p. 621). Also, research demonstrates that learning is impacted by the learners’ interest in the material, but a balance must be found to promote learner interest without increasing distractions. Finally, the principle has not been tested in long-term authentic learning situations.
Examples of the Coherence Principle
Few educators would disagree with the idea that distracting elements in a multimedia presentation can hinder learning. But consistently applying the coherence principle in practice is not always easy. Because of the ubiquitous use of PowerPoint for creating presentations, numerous examples exist of cluttered presentations that violate the coherence principle. In the example below, taken from a PowerPoint about advertising, several violations to this principle exist. The instructional objective for using this slide is for students, after learning the basic advertising techniques, to identify the techniques used by companies to market jeans to teenagers. This objective cannot be clearly identified from the media presented. According to Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students will experience cognitive overload with the multiple visual images and text presented in conjunction with the teacher narration (Clark & Mayer, p. 36). To align this slide with the coherence principle, the extraneous material must be eliminated to increase the potential for learning.
The coherence principle focuses on the use of multimedia, any audio or visual messages, presented during learning. Many presenters or instructional designers embellish their learning materials with additional elements, as per the arousal theory, to build in interest and entertainment. The thought being emotional arousal enhances engagement and motivation ( Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 156). However, empirical research (Mayer, 1999; Morena & Mayer, 2000; Clark & Mayer, 2008) consistently proves that adding extraneous material such as text, music, videos or graphics, depresses learning. The coherence principle states, “Avoid extraneous audio, graphics, or graphic treatments and words to minimize irrelevant load imposed on memory during learning.” (p. 456). Applying this principle requires remembering that “less is more” and always distill learning materials to the essence.
Mayer and Clark (2011) acknowledge that the coherence principle is constrained in some areas due to lack of research (p. 172-173). For example it is unknown how learner characteristics factor into the effectiveness of this principle. Research proves novices to a domain and low-ability learners can show significant learning gains when the coherence principle is applied to learning materials. (p. 164). However, research suggest the expertise reversal effect may mean learners with prior knowledge in a domain, may not increase learning when the principle is applied (Mayer, 1999, p. 621). Also, research demonstrates that learning is impacted by the learners’ interest in the material, but a balance must be found to promote learner interest without increasing distractions. Finally, the principle has not been tested in long-term authentic learning situations.
Examples of the Coherence Principle
Few educators would disagree with the idea that distracting elements in a multimedia presentation can hinder learning. But consistently applying the coherence principle in practice is not always easy. Because of the ubiquitous use of PowerPoint for creating presentations, numerous examples exist of cluttered presentations that violate the coherence principle. In the example below, taken from a PowerPoint about advertising, several violations to this principle exist. The instructional objective for using this slide is for students, after learning the basic advertising techniques, to identify the techniques used by companies to market jeans to teenagers. This objective cannot be clearly identified from the media presented. According to Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students will experience cognitive overload with the multiple visual images and text presented in conjunction with the teacher narration (Clark & Mayer, p. 36). To align this slide with the coherence principle, the extraneous material must be eliminated to increase the potential for learning.
Slide 2, shows the updated presentation with the headline clearly focusing students on the objective. Weeding all other extraneous images and text ensures cognitive overload does not occur in the visual channel. This frees students cognitively to listen to the teacher’s narration and class discussion. To offer instant feedback, the advertising techniques and current image appears on the next slide.
Relationship Coherence Principle to other Multimedia Learning Principles
Many of the multimedia learning principles articulated by Mayer and his colleagues also support the coherence principle primarily by eliminating extraneous text. These principles and how they support the coherence principle are shown in the following table .
Many of the multimedia learning principles articulated by Mayer and his colleagues also support the coherence principle primarily by eliminating extraneous text. These principles and how they support the coherence principle are shown in the following table .
Coherence Principle and Theories of Psychology
Psychologist base all multimedia design principles on research about how people learn from words and images. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning assumes all people possess dual channels, audio and visual, to process incoming information. Learners consistently endeavor to make sense of the information but the working memory capacity is highly limited. Consequently, extraneous audio and visual materials can overload the learner’s working memory capacity and hinder learning (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 138). Meaningful learning occurs when learners select relevant material, organize it into a coherent structure, and integrate it with relevant prior knowledge (Mayer, 2009). Hence, it follows that applying the coherence principle eliminates the superfluous audio and visual elements, which enables processing in the working memory to increase the opportunity for sense making and integration with prior knowledge.
The arousal theory, a counter-argument to the coherence principle, suggest that some extraneous content can be advantageous in a multimedia presentation if it arouses the learner’s interest and emotion which will promote learning. Clark and Mayer (2011) reference Dewey who in 1913 argued that adding interesting material to an otherwise boring lesson will not promote deep learning (p. 156). Further they state the cognitive theory predicts that extraneous graphics, music and text overload the processing channels thus disrupting the learner’s ability to make sense of the material. Deeper learning is not synonymous with multimedia containing interesting but extraneous music or visual elements.
The information acquisition theory of multimedia learning also contradicts the coherence principle. It states that learning consist of receiving information and three ways of delivering the same information is better than two (Clark & Mayer, p. 137). It adheres to the idea that multiple modes of delivering the same information simultaneously guarantee all learning styles will be accommodated. The theory does not account for the limited capacity of the working memory and the brains inability to filter out irrelevant stimulus. The coherence principle supports the “less is more” premise because of extensive research on how people learn.
Discussion
The coherence principle seems intuitive to most experienced creators and viewers of multimedia. As an educator, application of this principle requires making conscious decisions about the learning goal and the best choices of media to include for deep learning to occur. But qualifications for application of this principle do exist. Clark and Mayer admit the coherence principle is a general guideline rather than a “one size fits all” rule. Learning is a dynamic and individualistic activity with many variables that can influence the learning outcomes. Instructional materials that are ideal for one group of learners in one context may be entirely inappropriate for another group of learners in another context. This is especially true in traditional ability diversified public school classrooms. If a teacher’s presentation aims to apply this principle of “ less is more” to meet the low ability students’ needs, others with prior knowledge of the topic may become disengaged. More research is needed to understand how to interest learners and be aware of limits on cognitive processing especially in authentic learning environments.
Another qualification of interest is whether students will learn to ignore irrelevant material. Clark and Mayer (2011) emphatically state that members of the younger generation are not less susceptible to mental overload just because of their intensive multimedia exposure (p. 163). However, Dr. Joseph Chisholm (2010) and colleagues’ research with gamers confirms that extensive experience with action video games may enhance players' attentional control. Players learn to focus attention dependent on personal goals and expectations (Chisholm, Hickey, Theeuwes & Kingstone, 2010). Considering the younger generations’ gaming habits, it makes sense that practice with the technique of signaling may enable students to sift out the irrelevant and discern the essential material. This needs further research to see if this attentional control can be transferred to less dynamic media or be taught. In the meantime, adherence to good design principles—especially the coherence principle—is important to ensure deep learning from multimedia.
At a personal level, the coherence principle explains why certain learning situations are more stressful. The ability to process new information becomes challenging when working memory is overloaded with text, graphics and music. A precise example is the difference between two Boise State University course Moodle sites this semester. One is sparse but well organized and easy to navigate while the other is cluttered with a copious number of links, flashing images, and verbose redundant text about assignments. Experiencing this contrast as a student, makes one aware of the imperative responsibility of applying the coherence principle to teaching materials aimed at less sophisticated learners.
References
Atkinson, C., & Mayer, R. E. (2004). Five ways to reduce PowerPoint overload. From
http://www.sociablemedia.com/PDF/atkinson_mayer_powerpoint_4_23_04.pdf.
Chisholm, J. D., Hickey, C., Theeuwes, J., & Kingstone, A. (2010). Reduced
attentional capture in action video game players. Attention, Perception and
Psychophysics, 72(3).
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction, 3nd edition.
Pfeiffer: San Francisco, CA.
Mayer, R. E. (1999). Multimedia aids to problem-solving transfer. International Journal of
Educational Research, 31(7), 611–623.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A learner-centered approach to multimedia explanations:
Deriving instructional design principles from cognitive theory. Interactive Multimedia
Electronic Journal of Computer-Enhanced Learning, 2(2), 2004-07. Retrieved March 19,
2015 from http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2000/2/05/index.asp
Williams, R., & Tollett, J. (2006). The non-designers web book, 3rd edition. Peachpit: Berkeley,
CA.
*******************************************************************************
Psychologist base all multimedia design principles on research about how people learn from words and images. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning assumes all people possess dual channels, audio and visual, to process incoming information. Learners consistently endeavor to make sense of the information but the working memory capacity is highly limited. Consequently, extraneous audio and visual materials can overload the learner’s working memory capacity and hinder learning (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 138). Meaningful learning occurs when learners select relevant material, organize it into a coherent structure, and integrate it with relevant prior knowledge (Mayer, 2009). Hence, it follows that applying the coherence principle eliminates the superfluous audio and visual elements, which enables processing in the working memory to increase the opportunity for sense making and integration with prior knowledge.
The arousal theory, a counter-argument to the coherence principle, suggest that some extraneous content can be advantageous in a multimedia presentation if it arouses the learner’s interest and emotion which will promote learning. Clark and Mayer (2011) reference Dewey who in 1913 argued that adding interesting material to an otherwise boring lesson will not promote deep learning (p. 156). Further they state the cognitive theory predicts that extraneous graphics, music and text overload the processing channels thus disrupting the learner’s ability to make sense of the material. Deeper learning is not synonymous with multimedia containing interesting but extraneous music or visual elements.
The information acquisition theory of multimedia learning also contradicts the coherence principle. It states that learning consist of receiving information and three ways of delivering the same information is better than two (Clark & Mayer, p. 137). It adheres to the idea that multiple modes of delivering the same information simultaneously guarantee all learning styles will be accommodated. The theory does not account for the limited capacity of the working memory and the brains inability to filter out irrelevant stimulus. The coherence principle supports the “less is more” premise because of extensive research on how people learn.
Discussion
The coherence principle seems intuitive to most experienced creators and viewers of multimedia. As an educator, application of this principle requires making conscious decisions about the learning goal and the best choices of media to include for deep learning to occur. But qualifications for application of this principle do exist. Clark and Mayer admit the coherence principle is a general guideline rather than a “one size fits all” rule. Learning is a dynamic and individualistic activity with many variables that can influence the learning outcomes. Instructional materials that are ideal for one group of learners in one context may be entirely inappropriate for another group of learners in another context. This is especially true in traditional ability diversified public school classrooms. If a teacher’s presentation aims to apply this principle of “ less is more” to meet the low ability students’ needs, others with prior knowledge of the topic may become disengaged. More research is needed to understand how to interest learners and be aware of limits on cognitive processing especially in authentic learning environments.
Another qualification of interest is whether students will learn to ignore irrelevant material. Clark and Mayer (2011) emphatically state that members of the younger generation are not less susceptible to mental overload just because of their intensive multimedia exposure (p. 163). However, Dr. Joseph Chisholm (2010) and colleagues’ research with gamers confirms that extensive experience with action video games may enhance players' attentional control. Players learn to focus attention dependent on personal goals and expectations (Chisholm, Hickey, Theeuwes & Kingstone, 2010). Considering the younger generations’ gaming habits, it makes sense that practice with the technique of signaling may enable students to sift out the irrelevant and discern the essential material. This needs further research to see if this attentional control can be transferred to less dynamic media or be taught. In the meantime, adherence to good design principles—especially the coherence principle—is important to ensure deep learning from multimedia.
At a personal level, the coherence principle explains why certain learning situations are more stressful. The ability to process new information becomes challenging when working memory is overloaded with text, graphics and music. A precise example is the difference between two Boise State University course Moodle sites this semester. One is sparse but well organized and easy to navigate while the other is cluttered with a copious number of links, flashing images, and verbose redundant text about assignments. Experiencing this contrast as a student, makes one aware of the imperative responsibility of applying the coherence principle to teaching materials aimed at less sophisticated learners.
References
Atkinson, C., & Mayer, R. E. (2004). Five ways to reduce PowerPoint overload. From
http://www.sociablemedia.com/PDF/atkinson_mayer_powerpoint_4_23_04.pdf.
Chisholm, J. D., Hickey, C., Theeuwes, J., & Kingstone, A. (2010). Reduced
attentional capture in action video game players. Attention, Perception and
Psychophysics, 72(3).
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction, 3nd edition.
Pfeiffer: San Francisco, CA.
Mayer, R. E. (1999). Multimedia aids to problem-solving transfer. International Journal of
Educational Research, 31(7), 611–623.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A learner-centered approach to multimedia explanations:
Deriving instructional design principles from cognitive theory. Interactive Multimedia
Electronic Journal of Computer-Enhanced Learning, 2(2), 2004-07. Retrieved March 19,
2015 from http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2000/2/05/index.asp
Williams, R., & Tollett, J. (2006). The non-designers web book, 3rd edition. Peachpit: Berkeley,
CA.
*******************************************************************************
AECT standards: 1. Content Knowledge – 1.3 Assessing/Evaluating; 2. Content Pedagogy – 2.3 Assessing/Evaluating; 5. Research -- 5.1 Theoretical Foundation; 5.3 Assessing/Evaluating